(S)Electing a Pope: From the Beginning to Today
Expunging the Political to Leave the Divine
The successor to Pope Francis will soon be named using a selection (or is it an election?) process that was quite different from when the Church was formed nearly two thousand years ago. This is because the Catholic Church structure is run by humans. And just like anything else we do, never underestimate our ability to mess up a good thing. By nature, we are self interested and want to preserve what is ours and want more. When given a little power, we will use that power to gain more of it and find ways to use it to our benefit. Dictators, emperors and monarchs who have ultimate power have done so for thousands of years. The politically elected, regardless of what form it takes, will always seek such power.
As such, the Catholic Church structure attracts internal and external influences wanting to control its power in many ways, but especially in voting for a Pope. I will provide a brief history of the evolution as to how the Pope was chosen, highlighting the nefarious influences of that process and the changes put in place to expunge them.
I summarize these changes at the end to review the current process to (s)elect the Successor of St. Peter before the conclave gathers next week on Wednesday May 7, 2025.
The Early Church
Once Jesus ascended into heaven, Saint Peter became the leader of the Catholic Church. Initially, Popes chose their own successor. However, this did not last long and the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) instead was chosen following the same process as other bishops: the local clergy of Rome were the primary electors, nearby bishops approved the choice and the laity verbally provided their approval (termed “assent by acclamation”). This process proved cumbersome and led to disputes resulting in a rival Pope being elected (“antipope”) in what is known as the “first schism” in 217 A.D.
In the 4th century, after Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity, you would think things got better for the papal succession process. It didn’t. Instead, secular influence infiltrated the process and often presided over it or imposed their own candidate. Over the centuries, Emperors decreed that they needed to confirm the election of the Pope. This was the case with Emperor Justinian in the 6th century. The Church had to wait for imperial approval, causing long vacancies of the papal office. In subsequent centuries, the Church held that a Pope’s authority came from Christ, not any emperor. But in practice, this was far from the truth as Popes often owed their position to kings or emperors. Through this, the powerful sought to control the Church to wield it for their own benefit.
The First Reforms
In the 11th Century, Pope Nicholas II decreed that the cardinals would have a leading role in choosing the Pope. No approval from any emperor or king was needed. Only a token role for the lower clergy and the people of Rome was offered to provide their approval until that was removed in the 12th century along with other reforms. One such reform required at least a two-thirds majority vote from the College of Cardinals—the electoral body established to vote for a Pope.
Still, the papal election process could be prolonged and difficult. Following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268, voting lasted for two years and nine months without a decision. The local authorities eventually locked the cardinals in and (according to legend) removed the roof of the palace and rationed their food to bread and water. This led to the election of Pope Gregory X in 1271. He soon put a law in place that sequestered the cardinals in a closed area (“clausi cum clave” or “conclave”) with no contact with the outside world. Meals were limited or reduced initially and after eight days, only bread, water and wine would be provided. Cardinals could not leave except for illness. Communication with the outside world was restricted. The Church tried to remove politics from the process and have the cardinals guided only by the Holy Spirit.
The Western Schism
Politics still found their way into the papal election process. The western schism (1378-1417) resulted in three simultaneous Popes. From Britannica.com:
Despite the wisdom and rigor of Gregory’s reform, papal elections continued to face difficulties in the 14th century. The most serious problem resulted in the Western Schism, when in 1378 two groups of cardinals elected rival Popes, one residing in Avignon (France) and the other in Rome, a third group of cardinals, convening in Pisa (Italy) in 1409, elected a third. The crisis caused by the schism was partially resolved by the reforms implemented at the Council of Constance (1414–18): the claims to the papacy of the Avignon Pope, Benedict (XIII), and the Pope selected by the Pisan cardinals, John (XXIII), were rejected, and each was branded a schismatic “antipope.” Gregory XII grudgingly resigned, and Martin V was elected to replace him.
Veto Powers
Thanks to Pope Gregory XV, the conclave process was standardized by the end of the 16th century including how votes are cast, counted and burned (to signal the result). However, in the 17th and 18th centuries, large and powerful Catholic countries claimed the right to exclude one papal candidate per conclave. To avoid conflict, the Church allowed this influence until 1904, when Pius X updated the conclave regulations, removing veto powers from any government.
Modern Adjustments
In the 1960s, Pope Paul VI established two rules: (1) any cardinal 80 or older cannot vote in the conclave and (2) the number of cardinals was capped at 120. These rules were established to make sure that the voting cardinals were active and engaged with the Church. In 1996, Pope John Paul II allowed the cardinals to suspend the two-thirds rule and move to an election by simple majority after 34 rounds of voting. This was to bring a result sooner to avoid drawn out voting. However, this was reversed in 2007 by Pope Benedict XVI to require a super majority to foster unity around the new Pope.
The political nature of man has been and will always be present in our lives. All we can do is be aware of our nature and structure things accordingly. This is so even with the Catholic Church. Indeed, it has led to how the Pope is elected today which is summarized in the section below.
(S)Electing a Pope in 2025
Here is a summation as to how a Pope is chosen in the Catholic Church today.
Sede Vacante (“The Seat Being Vacant”) & Preparation
Upon death or resignation of Pope, Church governance passes to the College of Cardinals—but only in caretaker capacity (no major Church decisions allowed)
Cardinal Camerlengo certifies Pope’s death
Cardinals summoned to Rome
Late Pope’s Fisherman’s Ring is broken
9 days of mourning follows the funeral
Conclave’s start date is set between 15 and 20 days after the vacancy
Eligible electors are cardinals under the age of 80 at the moment the papacy became vacant
Number of cardinals capped at 120
Entering the Conclave
On the appointed day, a special Mass is held in the Sistine Chapel where the conclave will take place
Cardinals take an oath to observe conclave’s secrecy and rules
Once all cardinals are inside, everyone else must leave, sealing the cardinals in isolation
Cardinals eat and sleep in a secure residence inside, cut off from the outside world
Electronic jamming devices and physical sweeps block all communications from getting in or out
Cardinals remain in isolation, free from outside pressure, until a Pope is elected
Voting (“Scrutiny”)
Voting (called “Scrutiny”), starts on the afternoon on the first day and continues up to four ballots per full day (two in the morning and two in the afternoon)
Cardinals vote by writing the name of their selection on a paper ballot, fold it twice and hand it to a cardinal designated to count the votes (“scrutineers”) aloud, piercing each ballot with a needle onto a thread
At least a two-thirds majority is needed (so 80 if there are 120 cardinals voting)
If no majority is reached, ballots are burned in a stove with a chemical to produce black smoke and another vote is scheduled
After about every three days of balloting without electing a Pope, there is a pause to pray, reflect and for the senior cardinal to encourage agreement
Election and Acceptance
When a majority is reached, the Dean of the College (or another senior cardinal) approaches the Pope-elect and asks if he accepts
If the Pope-elect says “Accepto”, he is now the Pope
The Pope is asked “By what name shall you be called?”
The new Pope selects his name, signaling the direction and inspiration for his new role
Ballots are burned in a stove with a chemical to produce white smoke, signaling the world that a Pope has been chosen
Announcement
The Pope changes into his papal vestments in the “Room of Tears”
The Cardinal Deacon appears on the central balcony of St. Peter’s Basilica with the Latin proclamation: “Habemus Papam!” (“We have a Pope!”)
The Pope walks onto the balcony to give his first greeting and blessing
Post-Election Activities
Each cardinal pledges their obedience to the new Pope in the Sistine Chapel
A formal inauguration Mass is scheduled
The conclave is dissolved
Conclusion
The nature of man to seek power, wealth and control requires innovative ways to structure organizations, businesses and governments to achieve its objectives. Allowing the political and powerful into the papal election process weakened Church leadership, steering it away from its mission. Over thousands of years, this process has evolved to insulate the Church and refocus it on the essential spiritual elements of (s)electing the Successor of St. Peter—expunging the political to leave the divine.
Peace.
Sources
https://www.britannica.com/topic/papal-conclave
https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11456a.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_selection_before_1059
https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/third-lateran-council-1179-10583
https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04192a.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_Constance
https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04288a.htm
https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05677b.htm
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_conclave
https://iberohomes.com/en/news/118/from-white-smoke-to-habemus-papam-the-process-of-electing-a-pope/
https://www.vaticannews.va/en/vatican-city/news/2025-04/conclave-elect-new-pope-cardinals-beginning-date-may-2025.html